INTRODUCTION

Increasing food security and reduction of risk is a recurring theme in current agricultural development programmes. Sorghum (the worlds fifth most important cereal) and pearl millet (less widely grown but a crop with a strong poverty focus), are grown mainly in the semi-arid and arid tropics, and subtropics. Together they form a major food source in Africa. Maize is also a major food source but is usually grown in wetter areas. Its popularity however is such that, even in zones where success is not guaranteed, farmers continue to plant the crop, often against extension advice. Shortage of water is the most serious constraint on production. In consequence, programmes have been initiated to conserve water for supplementary irrigation during the growing season. However, this project is based on the premise that small amounts of water can be used most efficiently at the beginning of the season, to 'extend' the effective growing season.

Transplanting cereal seedlings from irrigated nurseries has been adopted in several areas as a means of increasing food security. This is done by extending the growing season in areas with patchy and unreliable rainfall, or where the rainfall may not support a second crop. In most rice growing countries, the use of cereal nurseries is common place. Linked to accurate sowing rates and input application the process guarantees reasonable crops by reducing risk and affording best use of water.

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PREVIOUS WORK
Very little quantified information on transplanting as a means of increasing food security exists. Some information is available on the physiology of transplanting. For example, work at Reading investigated transplanting as an alternative technique to direct sown maize. They found that transplants matured significantly earlier than direct sown maize and tended to give a higher grain yield (Dale and Drenan 1997 a,b,c). Work in Northern Ghana on dates of planting transplants was done by Mercer-Quareshi (1995) and some data exists on transplanting pearl millet (Yadav et al 1995).

Other information on transplanting tends to involve indigenous unquantified data. For example in Vietnam, the National Maize Research Institute has developed a low-cost maize production system on the Red River Delta based on transplanting maize into soils previously used exclusively for rice (Tran Hong Uy 1996; Ngo Huu Tinh 1992). In Africa on the shores of Lake Chad in Borno State, NE Nigeria, farmers sow sorghum nurseries. When the time is right the seedlings are planted on the lake bed as the water recedes from the lake. An older stand is established very quickly, allowing the crop to mature with the water that is available (Olabanji et al 1996). Similar scenarios can be witnessed in the foothills of the Atakora chain near Natitingou, Benin where the Somba tribe cultivate transplanted millet. Also in the Nampula region of Mozambique where sorghum is transplanted in opportunistic attempts to increase area under cultivation when the rains are good. A similar practice has been observed in Save Valley, Zimbabwe

In general, indigenous, but largely unquantified information suggests that where transplanting is practised a better stand is established, more yield may be obtained per hectare and a greater degree of food security experienced by the people.

References
DALE, A.E AND DRENNAN, D.S.H. (1997). Transplanted maize (Zea Mays) for grain production in Southern England. I. Effects of planting date, transplant age at planting and cultivar on grain yield. Journal of Agricultural Science 128 (1) 27-35.
DALE, A.E AND DRENNAN, D.S.H. (1997). Transplanted maize (Zea Mays) for grain production in Southern England. II. Effects of planting date, transplant age at planting and cultivar on growth development and harvest Index. Journal of Agricultural Science 128 (1) 37-44.
DALE, A.E AND DRENNAN, D.S.H. (1997). Transplanted maize (Zea Mays) for grain production in Southern England. III. Effects of plant growth regulator treatments of maize transplant morphology. Journal of Agricultural Science 128 (1) 45-50.
MERCER-QUARESHI, H. (1995). Transplanting and direct planting of late millets (Pennisetum typhoides (Bufn) Stapf and Hubbard in Northern Ghana. Ghana Journal of Agricultural Science 12 85-90.
NGO HUU TINH .(1992). Winter maize in the Red river delta of Northern Vietnam: Problems and Prospects.
OLABANJI, O.G., TABO, R., FLOWER, D.J., AJAYI, O., USHIE, F., KAIGAMA, B.K AND IKWELLE, M.C. (1996). Production and management: Survey of Masakwa sorghum growing in Northeastern Nigeria. International Sorghum and Millets Newsletter 37 61-63
TRAN HONG UY. (1996). Transplanting maize on wetland. A technical manual based on a successful case-study in Vietnam. FAO.
YADAV, H.D., KUMAR, V. AND YADAV, O.P. (1995). Techniques of sowing pearl millet under sodic soil conditions. International Sorghum and Millets Newsletter 36 60-61.

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OBJECTIVES

Phase 1
Characterisation of the physical and socio-economic constraints to the adoption of transplanting, and other non-standard techniques for improving crop establishment as a means of increasing food security.

Phase 2
Analysis of the suitability of locally available varieties and landraces to transplanting.

Phase 3
Identification of areas for the application of transplanting techniques, and development of optimal methodological strategies.

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ACTIVITIES

Phase 1

(Characterisation of the physical and socio-economic constraints to the adoption of transplanting, and other non-standard techniques for improving crop establishment as a means of increasing food security.)

• Investigation, using PRA techniques, of the agronomic, socio-economic and ergonomic factors affecting communities that may transplant crops.

 
• Identification of elements critical to the acceptance of the technique and a checklist created of environmental, social and ergonomic factors that are necessary prerequisites for the sustainable uptake of the technique.

 
• Analysis of intra-household and gender specific roles in transplanting and other non standard techniques for improving crop establishment.

 
• Development of a methodology for pilot community-based nursery establishment.

 

(Analysis of the suitability of locally available varieties and landraces to transplanting.)

• Participatory selection of local landraces and cultivars for screening.

 
• Improved agronomic techniques established at CAZS, Bangor using controlled environment and laboratory facilities. To determine the range of possibilities with regard to detailed timing of practices, ages of seedlings, soil types and water requirements etc.

 
• Field site trials conducted to determine the practical constraints during field level application of in vitro results.

 

(Identification of areas for the application of transplanting techniques, and development of optimal methodological strategies.)

• Identification of possible areas of application of transplanting techniques through participatory appraisal of village situations in selected areas using the checklist from phase 1.

 
• Village level trials of modified techniques with full socio-economic and agronomic analysis conducted with villagers.

 
• Production of recommendations at village level through publishing simple reports and hand books.

 
• Evaluation of methodologies used in terms of effectiveness for;
• Identifying current practices
• Testing and adapting those practices
• Uptake of technology
• Increase in productivity

 
• Participatory workshop on the role of integrated PRA/formal research at the end of the project period.

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EXPECTED OUTCOMES

• Outputs with applications that will benefit a wide range of people in the arid and semi-arid areas who have access to small amounts of additional water.

 
• Developed techniques that will enable farmers to maximize the use of rainfall within a season.

 Target institutions (listed below) able to disseminate improved techniques to farmers.
Department for International Development strategy for Research on Renewable Natural Resources
• Department of Research and Specialist Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Zimbabwe
• Rural Unity for Development organisation (an Oxfam affiliated NGO in Zimbabwe)

• Links with other institutions established to broaden the dissemination of information both within and outside Zimbabwe.

ACTUAL OUTCOMES

Recent Reports

ZIMBABWE

Within Zimbabwe project work is concentrated around Masvingo in the Masvingo Province and Save Valley in the Manicaland Province. These areas transverse natural region zones 4 and 5 which are characterised by the map of Natural Regions and Provisional Farming Areas of Zimbabwe 1:1000 000, Department of the Surveyor General, Harare, Zimbabwe as;

Zone 4 - Semi Extensive Farming Region. Experiences fairly low rain 450-650mm and subject to periodic seasonal droughts and severe dry spells during the rainy season. Rainfall is too low and uncertain for cash cropping except in certain very favourable localities where limited drought resistant crops can afford a sideline. The farming system, in accord with natural factors should be based on livestock production but can be intensified to some extent by the growing of drought resistant fodder crops.

Zone 5 - Extensive Farming Region. The rainfall in this region is too low and erratic for the reliable production of even drought resistant fodder and grain crops, and farming has to be based on the utilisation of the veld alone. The extensive form of cattle/game ranging is the only sound farming system for this region. Included in this region are areas <900m where rain is <600 - 650mm

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On-station Trials

The Pilot Project
The Centre for Arid Zone Studies funded a pilot study with the aid of a generous donation from the famous Kenyan born musician and ex-Bangor student Mr Roger Whittaker via the University of Wales Bangor Development Trust Fund. Mr Michael Parry Griffiths spent a year working at the Save Valley Research Station, Zimbabwe and with the Rural Unity For Development Organisation (RUDO) an Oxfam-affiliated NGO in Masvingo. The work tested the idea that it is possible to grow sorghum in nurseries using small amounts of water and then transplant the seedlings when it starts to rain.

This initial work with sorghum at the Save Valley Experimental Station in Zimbabwe demonstrated that the idea was worth pursuing. Experiments focused on nurseries of different plant densities and different planting out times.The results showed that plants from 20 day old nurseries flowered slightly earlier than the plants direct sown on the same day. The older the plants when they were transplanted the earlier they flowered in the field compared to plants direct sown at the same time. Plants from 40 day old nurseries took only 20 days to reach 50% flowering whilst the plants direct sown on the same day did not flower for more than 60 days. This could be useful for farmers who have access to a water supply (e.g. micro-dams or wells) in areas of very short duration rainfall.

The pilot experiments also showed there was a yield advantage for plants which had been transplanted from a 20 day old nursery over those direct sown on the same day. The difference is less marked with plants from the older nurseries. Although a yield advantage is shown here for the transplanted plants, we stress that this is data from one year only and that these experiments are being repeated.

  However, this results are encouraging and they suggest that it is unlikely that there will be any significant yield penalties due to transplanting compared with direct sown crops. It should also be noted that the rainfall was above average in Zimbabwe in the 1998/99 season and that had the rain not continued into the season, the benefit from the transplanted plants could have been greater.

The pilot study has shown that transplanted plants flower earlier in the field than those sown at the same time and that transplanted plants in this pilot study out-yield plants sown at the same time. Nurseries of 1000 plants m2 were found to be optimal. It was concluded that sorghum can be transplanted without reducing yield in a good/normal season and that a nursery of 5m x 6m will provide enough plants for 1 ha of sorghum in SE Zimbabwe conditions. On this basis, further funding was sought for expansion of the work. The current DFID flexibility fund project R7341 commenced on the 1st of April 1999.
 

Current On-station Trials
Current on-station trials are being conducted at the Save Valley Research Station, Chipangai, S.E Zimbabwe. Which is run by the Department of Research and Specialist Services (DR&SS), Ministry of Agriculture, Zimbabwe.

The trials conducted in the 1999/2000 season compared transplanting at various ages of two pearl millet varieties; PMV2 and PMV3, and two sorghum varieties; Marcia and Muchayeni.

In September approximately 2 months before the expected rainfall 1m x 1m bunded nurseries were constructed ready for nursery establishment. Four replicate nurseries per variety were sown every 10 days to provide approximately 20, 30 and 40 day old seedlings to be ready at the onset of rain. 2000 seeds were sown in each nursery to allow for a 1000m² density after thinning. Nurseries were watered twice daily due to very high temperatures.

After rainfall at the beginning of November, 26, 36 and 46 day old seedlings were transplanted into 5m x 5m plots at a density or 75 plants per plot. At the same time other plots were direct sown with dry seed and seed primed in water for 12 hours, as a comparison to the transplanting.
 
 

Concurrent trials were conducted by Mr Steven Mapfumo, a University of Zimbabwe student studying for an MPhil. Using the same format as above he compared the growth differences between transplanted plants with cut leaves and those with leaves left in tact.

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On-farm Trials

The Pilot Project

Work was conducted with a group of farmers who spontaneously created their own nurseries and transplanted sorghum in their own way.

A group of 6-8 farmers planted a nursery on Mr Madzokere's farm in Mashate, Masvingo Province. His homestead was selected by the farmers as he had a well on his property. The seeds were sown in a nursery and the farmers shared the seedlings and helped each other with the transplanting, when the seedlings were one month old. They observed that Mr Madzokere's crop was the best because he did not have to transport his seedlings very far. They thought the technique had potential and wanted to be included in any further trials. People came from far and wide to admire this farmer's crop and it was described by villagers as "headturningly good".
 

Current On-farm Trials
Current on-farm trials are being conducted in the Masvingo Province with the aid of a local NGO Rural Unity for Development Organisation (RUDO). Three areas were involved; Chendebvu, Nemavuzhe in ward 22 Chivi district, and Mashate in ward 18 Masvingo district.
 

Initial meetings were held to introduce the concept of transplanting and to asses the level of interest. After a large expression of interest further meetings were held to explain the details of the trials and identify the participants. The number of farmers involved for the initial trials was limited to 25 (10 in Chendebvu 5 in Nemavuzhe and 10 in Mashate) for logistical reasons and a pre-requisite for participation was access to water outside the rainy season. Farmers themselves then chose who would conduct the trials.

Each farmer received 2kg of Marcia seed on the understanding that 4kg would be returned to the project at harvest. Farmers established 2 nurseries approximately 10 days apart, 1/2 kg for each. They were given guidelines as to the nursery set-up but the exact construction and management was left to the individual farmer. The time of transplanting was at the farmers discretion although it was suggested that it should follow a period of rainfall. As a control the farmers were asked to direct-sow 1kg of seed following their normal practices. Farmers were asked to record sowing dates and amounts of water added to the nurseries.
 
 

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UK

The UK work is being conducted at the Centre for Arid Zone Studies (CAZS). CAZS is also responsible for the overall co-ordination of the project both in the UK and Zimbabwe.

All experimental work is carried out at the University of Wales, Bangor using controlled environment cabinets and greenhouse facilities based at Pen-Y-Ffridd Experimental Station, and laboratories.